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Part 1 – We Were Promised Rosie
The Helper Robots of Our Sci-Fi Dreams
They Work Hard, They Play Hard
AI: Fuel for the Robot Explosion
Part 3 – Time for Some Robot History
Roomba Roams in Millions of Homes
Why Build Robots That Resemble People?
The Challenges of Building Humanoids
The Nothing’s-Changed Scenario
Not the Robots From the Movies
Our New AI Robots Are the Best
What are today’s most advanced humanoid robots?
Why do we try to make robots that resemble people?
What are humanoid robots used for?
What types of jobs are humanoids best suited for?
What are the top humanoid robot companies?
Is Tesla building a humanoid robot?
What is the most famous humanoid robot?
Are today’s humanoids safe for our homes?
What lessons can robot makers learn from Roomba?
When did Honda start developing Asimo?
When and why did Honda retire Asimo?
What is an example of a lifelike humanoid?
Who came up with the Uncanny Valley idea?
What is the Uncanny Valley chart?
What is the Uncanny Valley used for in robotics?
What hardware does a typical humanoid require?
How are sensors used in a robot?
How are computers used in a robot?
How are batteries used in a robot?
How are actuators used in a robot?
What is the problem with current robot actuators?
How many actuators does a humanoid need?
How could we make actuators better?
What is one of the hardest problems in robotics?
What is the goal of a robot learning algorithm?
Why has generative AI electrified robotics?
What is the first step to develop AI for robots?
Can you train AI models in simulation?
Can AI finally “solve” robot learning?
What could a general-purpose AI model for robots do?
Where will humanoids be used first?
Should we worry about a robot uprising like in movies?
Can we predict when humanoids will be in our homes?
If not humanoids, what robots could help with housework?
Robots (in alphabetical order)
AMBIDEX interacting with people and objects
Asimo running, hopping, and kicking a ball
Asimo evolving from E and P series
Atlas carrying plastic engine covers
Atlas demonstrating its flexibility
Atlas HD jumping over an obstacle
Atlas HD stumbling and falling
Atlas HD jumping and carrying objects
Atlas HD bumping into objects and falling
DARPA competition robots falling
Digit navigating and finding bins
Digit removing a tray from the oven
Figure 02 handling factory parts
Geminoid HI-1 sitting next to Hiroshi Ishiguro
G1 showing off its flexibility
Hand Arm System showing its cable system
Neo grabbing a shirt from a rack
Optimus training with teleoperation
Phoenix showing its head sensors
Roomba (first model) vacuuming a carpet
Roomba going over thick carpet
Groups of Robots (in order of appearance)
Robot collage: today’s top humanoids
Robot cards: Apollo, Atlas, Digit, Figure, GR-1, H1, Neo, Tesla Robot Optimus, and Phoenix
Creepy collage: lifelike humanoids
Uncanny Valley chart: Kuka, Asimo, and Albert Hubo
AI simulation: Apollo, H1, and Digit learning to walk
Sci-Fi Robots (in order of appearance)
Andrew from “Bicentennial Man”
C-3PO and R2-D2 from “Star Wars”
Where’s My Robot?
Here’s how we could finally build humanoid robots that do all our domestic chores
This article is part of IEEE Spectrum’s “Reinventing Invention” special issue →
To all robot makers and researchers who kindly helped us with information and materials, and allowed us to feature their amazing projects here.
More Robots
Learn more about the robots and technologies featured in this story, most of which you can find on IEEE Spectrum’s Robots Guide . In order of appearance: iCub , Atlas HD , Atlas , Nadia , G1 , Florian , Hercules , Johnny 05 , Roomba , Digit , Optimus , Valkyrie , Walker S1 , T-HR3 , Neo , Phoenix , Apollo , GR-1 , H1 , Figure 02 , Gitai G1 , Everyday Robot , π0/Physical Intelligence , Falcon 9 , Rosie , Asimo , E Series , Armar , Geminoid HI-1 , Albert Hubo , Philip K. Dick , Sophia , Ameca , Han , EXRobots , CB2 , Telenoid , Erica , Titan , Aila , ROBOTIS Dynamixel-Y , Maxon HEJ 90-48-140 , AMBIDEX , Hand Arm System , Eve , Robotiq , HRP-2 , Open X-Embodiment Project , NVIDIA Project GR00T , Figure 01 , Astro , Stretch .
To Probe Further
This story is part of IEEE Spectrum ’s “ Reinventing Invention ” special issue, in which we highlight both the creative act and the grindingly hard engineering work required to turn an idea into something world changing. As Spectrum celebrates 60 years of publication this year, we take you behind the scenes of some awe-inspiring projects to reveal how technology is being made—and remade—in our time.
For a complete picture of state-of-the-art humanoid robotics today and the companies competing to build the best bot, see this feature article by Spectrum robotics editor Evan Ackerman: “ Humanoid Robots Are Getting to Work .”
University of California, Berkeley, roboticist Ken Goldberg delivers an insightful TED Talk about the science and engineering challenges of bringing humanoid helpers into the real world: “ Why don’t we have better robots yet? ”
In this excellent “Huge If True” episode, Cleo Abram reveals how Boston Dynamics’ Atlas robot works, and the challenges it and other robots face to break free from their lab confines: “ I Challenged Boston Dynamics’ Famous Atlas Robot .”
Sci-fi robots have long captured our imaginations. Featured in this story, T-800 from “ The Terminator ” (1984), the android Andrew from “ Bicentennial Man ” (1999), Rosie from “ The Jetsons ” (1962–1963), and C-3PO and R2-D2 from “ Star Wars ” (1977) are all well known. We also feature two lesser-known but fascinating robots: the cheerful domestic bot Sunny from the Apple TV+ show “ Sunny ,” and the Asimo-look-alike humanoid from the comedy-drama film “ Robot & Frank ” (2012).
For more on creepy robots, read our Uncanny Valley explainer , as well as Masahiro Mori’s original “The Uncanny Valley” essay , which Spectrum published in 2012 as the first English translation authorized by Mori, in collaboration with the IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine . Read also our profile of Japanese roboticist Hiroshi Ishiguro , who has created a series of lifelike robots, including an android copy of himself .
Photo & Video Credits
iCub crawling: Alessandro Albert; Atlas HD running: Bob O’Connor; Atlas pushups: Boston Dynamics; Nadia boxing: IHMC; G1 nutcracker: Unitree Robotics; Atlas HD backflipping: Boston Dynamics; Terminator: Pictorial Press/Alamy; Florian, Hercules, Johnny 05 falling: DARPA; Atlas falling: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot with tray: Getty Images; Helper robot dusting: iStock; Bicentennial Man: Columbia Pictures/Maximum Film/Alamy; Sunny: Apple; Robot & Frank: Photo12/Alamy; Rosie: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett Collection; Roomba moving: iRobot
Digit waving: Agility Robotics; Atlas HD acrobatic: Boston Dynamics; Atlas contortionist: Boston Dynamics
Clockwise from top left: Nadia: IHMC; Valkyrie: NASA; Optimus: Tesla; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Walker S1: UBTECH; T-HR3: Toyota; Neo: 1X Technologies; Phoenix: Sanctuary AI; Apollo: Apptronik; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; G1: Gitai
Apollo: Apptronik; Atlas: Boston Dynamics; Digit: Agility Robotics; Figure 02: Figure; GR-1: Fourier; H1: Unitree Robotics; Neo: 1X Technologies; Optimus: Tesla; Phoenix: Sanctuary AI
Neo backpack: 1X Technologies; Digits warehouse: Agility Robotics; Optimus dancing: Tesla; Optimus yoga: Tesla; G1 getting up: Unitree Robotics; GR-1 getting up: Fourier; Everyday Robot: Open X-Embodiment Collaboration; π0 folding clothes: Physical Intelligence; Phoenix grasping: Sanctuary AI; Phoenix sandwich: Sanctuary AI
Figure 02 factory: Figure; Apollo conveyor: Apptronik; Atlas HD mess: Boston Dynamics; Falcon 9 landing: SpaceX; G1 frying pan: Unitree Robotics
Roomba first model: Douglas McFadd/Getty Images; Roomba bottom view: iRobot; Roomba thick carpet: iRobot; Roomba cat: iStock; Roomba nuts: iRobot; Rosie crepes: Kurt Fuchs/CoTeSys; Rosie pretzels: Michael Memminger/CoTeSys; Asimo dreamy: Honda; E Series walking: Honda; Evolution of Asimo: Honda; Asimo demo: Honda; Asimo proud: Honda; Asimo balancing: Honda; Asimo bye: Honda; Armar with drill: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; Neo shirt: 1X Technologies
Geminoid HI-1 and human: ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Creepy heads: Anadolu Agency/Getty Images; Alberto Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images. Uncanny Valley collage: Clockwise from top left: Philip K. Dick: Vaughn Ridley/Sportsfile for Web Summit/Getty Images; Sophia: Sopa Images/Alamy; Ameca: Johannes Simon/Getty Images; Han: Nora Tam/South China Morning Post/Getty Images; EX Robot: Pedro Pardo/AFP/Getty Images; CB2: Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images; Geminoid HI-5: Osaka University; Telenoid: Osaka University and ATR Hiroshi Ishiguro Laboratories; Erica: JST ERATO ISHIGURO Symbiotic Human-Robot Interaction Project. Uncanny Valley chart: Titan: Kuka; Asimo: Honda; Albert Hubo: Seung-il Ryu/Nur Photo/Getty Images; Einstein: Library of Congress
Aila: DFKI; Phoenix sensors: Sanctuary AI; Actuator on hand: David Mareuil/Anadolu/Getty Images; Actuator exploded: ROBOTIS; Actuator silver: Maxon; G1 x-ray: Unitree Robotics; H1 kicked: Unitree Robotics; Ambidex demo: Naver Labs; Hand Arm System: DLR
Digit 3D vision: Agility Robotics; Eve door opening: 1X Technologies; HRP-2 falling back: DARPA; G1 stick: Unitree Robotics; AI collage: Open-X Embodiment Collaboration/Google Deepmind; Optimus training: Tesla; Phoenix sandwich making: Sanctuary AI; GR00T simulation: NVIDIA; Apollo juice teleoperation: Apptronik; π0 robot foundation model: Physical Intelligence; Neo dishwasher: 1X Technologies; Figure 01 coffee maker: Figure; Digit baker: Agility Robotics
Eve with maker: 1X Technologies; Figure 02 fingers: Figure; Astro looking: Amazon; Astro spinning: Amazon; Astro and dog: Amazon; Atlas HD dance: Boston Dynamics; Digits with bins: Agility Robotics; Stretch stretched: Hello Robot; Stretch serving drink: Hello Robot; π0 laundry: Physical Intelligence; Stretch kitchen: Hello Robot; Stretch dogs: Hello Robot; Atlas working: Boston Dynamics; Helper robot cooking: iStock; Helper robot dishwashing and ironing: Getty Images; Three Rosies: Mary Evans/AF Archive/Everett Collection
Roomba: iRobot; C-3PO: Vince Bucci/Getty Images; R2-D2: Collection Christophel/Alamy